John André

Biography written by Sammie Reinstein

British Major John André was the mastermind behind one of the most infamous espionage operations of the Revolutionary War. He conspired with Benedict Arnold to secure the American fortification of West Point for British forces.¹ When General George Washington was informed of the treasonous plot, he famously asked “Whom can we trust now?”² The conspiracy sealed André’s fate when he was captured carrying a secret map of West Point and executed for his crimes in October 1780.³ Despite being a controversial figure, André was known as a brilliant cartographer whose maps provided the British with vital geographic intelligence.

André was born to a wealthy Huguenot family on May 2, 1750, in London, England.⁴ After completing his education in Geneva, he began his career in the British army with the Royal Welch Fusiliers, one of Britain’s most prestigious regiments.⁵ In 1774, André was ordered to serve in Canada. When the first shots of the American Revolutionary War were fired at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the fighting quickly spread north from Massachusetts to Quebec.⁶ As André was stationed at Fort St. John’s, just outside of Quebec City, he was called on to draw a detailed map of the fortification. By crafting this map, André was able to make a name for himself as he proved his extensive knowledge of fortifications. However, in the siege of Fort St. John’s, from September to October 1775, André was captured by the Continental Army and sentenced to spend a year in captivity in Pennsylvania.⁷ He was released in a prisoner exchange in late 1776, and he continued to rise through the ranks in the British army.⁸

In 1777, André was promoted to captain of the 26th Regiment of Foot.⁹ That summer, he joined with General William Howe’s forces in the campaign to capture Philadelphia, which disembarked from the shores of the Elk River in Maryland.¹⁰ The pivotal campaign is depicted in a map by André entitled, Progress of the British Army from Elk River to Philadelphia, 1777.

The map clearly illustrates how the Elk River was a strategic landing point to avoid American defenses along the Delaware River.¹¹ Even though the British forces faced resistance from local militias, the Americans failed to stop the British advance towards Philadelphia, which was marked by engagements at Brandywine Creek, Fort Mifflin, and Fort Mercer. After the Battle of Brandywine, British forces captured Philadelphia under General Howe in September 1777.¹² In order to secure Philadelphia, the British had to take control of Fort Mifflin, which was a patriot fortification located on Mud Island. The plan of British attack is outlined in André’s map entitled, Plan of the British Attack on Mud Island, Pennsylvania (1777).

By November 15, Continental forces had abandoned Fort Mifflin. Almost a month later, the British captured Fort Mercer from the Americans. This granted the British complete access to the Delaware River, prompting the Continental Army to retreat to Valley Forge for the winter.¹³

When André was stationed in Philadelphia during the British occupation, he met Peggy Shippen, a young woman from a prosperous Loyalist family. André and Shippen maintained a correspondence, and she eventually introduced him to her husband, American Major General Benedict Arnold, whom she married in 1779.¹⁴ In November 1778, André was promoted from major to adjutant general by the British commander in chief, General Henry Clinton. This promotion occurred at a significant moment when the British shifted their aim to capturing West Point, which would cut off American access to the Hudson River and thus force Washington’s army from New York to New Jersey.¹⁵

In May 1779, André was promoted to chief intelligence officer for General Clinton, and in this position, he was tasked with finding American officers who could be convinced to spy for the British. Frustrated by not receiving a promotion in the Continental Army, Benedict Arnold conspired with André to seek the command of West Point from his American superiors, and then turn the fortification over to the British.¹⁶

In August 1780, Arnold received command of West Point. Once the conspiracy was set into motion, André and Arnold planned a personal meeting to discuss the details of the operation. On the night of September 21, 1780, André arrived at West Point on the British ship the Vulture and met with Arnold in a wooded grove until 4:00 a.m. During this meeting, André was provided with documents and sketches of West Point, which he stuffed in his boot. In addition to being provided with crucial intelligence, it is likely that André used the information provided by Arnold to create a map of West Point suitable for the British high command. When American forces suddenly attacked the Vulture, it was forced to retreat. As André attempted to escape enemy lines by foot, he was captured by Continental forces.¹⁷ Arnold’s betrayal was revealed through André’s possession of important military documents and, most incriminating, his map of West Point.

Washington ordered Arnold’s arrest, but he escaped to British lines. André was not so fortunate. Washington rapidly convened a trial for the British officer. While in captivity, he earned the respect of his American captors. Alexander Hamilton noted that André “united a peculiar elegance of mind and manners, and the advantage of a pleasing person.”¹⁸ Washington attempted to avoid André’s execution by offering to exchange him for Arnold.¹⁹ The exchange never materialized, and instead André was found guilty and hanged for his crimes of espionage in Tappan, New York, on October 2, 1780.

A part of André’s downfall stemmed from his expertise as a cartographer, which had long been essential to British military strategy. When he was discovered with a map of West Point, it became clear that Benedict Arnold betrayed the American cause and André was the mastermind behind the conspiracy.

Bibliography

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Byron, T.K. “John André.” George Washington’s Mount Vernon. Accessed October 11, 2024.

Carpenter, Jon. “Elk Landing in the Revolutionary War.” Historic Elk Landing. Accessed October 11, 2024.

Courtwright, Julie. “Whom Can We Trust Now? The Portrayal of Benedict Arnold in American History.” Fairmount Folio: Journal of History 2 (1998).

Percoco, James. “John André.” American Battlefield Trust. Accessed October 11, 2024.

Ronald, D. A. B. The Life of John André: The Redcoat Who Turned Benedict Arnold. New York, Casemate, 2019.

St. Clair Vivian, Frances. “John André as a Young Officer: The Army in the Eighteenth Century and a Young Man’s Impressions on Joining the First Regiment in the 1770s.” Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research 40, no. 162 (1962): 61–77.

Sulick, Michael J. Spying in America: Espionage from the Revolutionary War to the Dawn of the Cold War. Washington, D.C., Georgetown University Press, 2012.

William L. Clements Library. “The Death of John André.” Accessed October 9, 2024.